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Development

Brain Development

Piaget's Theory of Development

Dwecks Mindset theory

Willingham's Learning Theory

Issues and Debates

Development

Brain

  • Forebrain: The anterior part of the brain consisting of hemispheres.

  • Midbrain: The middle section of the brain that plays a role in the Central Nervous System (CNS).

  • Hindbrain: The lower part of the brain comprising the cerebellum, pons, and medulla.

  • Medulla Oblongata: A structure that connects the upper brain to the spinal cord and governs automatic responses, even present at 20 weeks in the fetus.

  • Cerebellum: Visible at around 6 weeks, this region is involved in functions such as fear and muscle activity.

  • Brain Development Timeline: At 3 weeks, a long tube forms, which eventually divides into three sections. By 5 weeks, it splits into anterior and posterior portions. However, the hindbrain does not divide.

of development

4 Stages

  • During the Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years), children rely on their senses and motor skills to explore the
    world. They develop the concept of object permanence, understanding that something exists even if it's
    out of sight, and often repeat actions.

  • In the Pre-operational stage (2-7 years), children engage in symbolic play, using one object to represent
    others. They tend to be egocentric, viewing the world from their perspective, and may display animism.
    They have difficulty understanding conservation, such as the idea that the volume of tall and small
    glasses can be the same.

  • The Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years) involves a focus on concrete thinking and morality.
    Children develop skills like seriation (sorting objects by size), conservation, decentration (considering
    multiple aspects), and reversibility (mentally undoing actions).

  • In the Formal Operational Stage (11 years and beyond), abstract thinking and a more complex
    understanding of morality emerge, allowing individuals to consider consequences in a broader sense.

to school

Application

  • Egocentrism

    • Recognize egocentric behavior as a normal part of development. Provide guidance and support to foster understanding of others' perspectives.

  • Sensorimotor Stage

    • Use singing and rhythm to stimulate language development. Incorporate hands-on experiences and manipulatives for multisensory learning.

  • Pre-operational Stage

    • Encourage experiential learning and hands-on exploration. Utilize visual learning strategies for effective comprehension

  • Developmental Differences

    • Understand that children think differently from adults and develop at varying rates. Adopt a flexible and inclusive approach to accommodate diverse learning needs.

theory of
development

Piaget's

  • Piaget proposed that children learn through schemas, mental frameworks for organizing and interpreting information.

  • Assimilation involves fitting new experiences into existing schemas.

  • Accommodation occurs when existing schemas need to be modified to accommodate new experiences.

  • Equilibrium is reached when a schema can explain all that an individual experiences, creating a state of mental balance.

strengths

  • Practical applications in classrooms

  • Detailed, intensive research

weakness

  • Subjective analysis

  • Reductionist approach

to school

Application

  • Egocentrism

    • Recognize egocentric behavior as a normal part of development. Provide guidance and support to foster understanding of others' perspectives.

  • Sensorimotor Stage

    • Use singing and rhythm to stimulate language development. Incorporate hands-on experiences and manipulatives for multisensory learning.

  • Pre-operational Stage

    • Encourage experiential learning and hands-on exploration. Utilize visual learning strategies for effective comprehension

  • Developmental Differences

    • Understand that children think differently from adults and develop at varying rates. Adopt a flexible and inclusive approach to accommodate diverse learning needs.

Core Case Study

Piaget and Inhelder's Study on Egocentrism and Perspective-Taking

  • Background: Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development. The study specifically explores the concept of egocentrism in children, which is a key component of Piaget's theory. Egocentrism is the idea that children in the pre-operational stage tend to see the world primarily from their own perspective and struggle to understand that others may have different viewpoints.
     

  • Aims: The study aims to investigate the developmental progression of children's ability to take the viewpoint of another person and their capacity to integrate multiple perspectives into their understanding.
     

  • Participants: 100 children of different ages.

    • 21 were aged between 4 and 6.5 years old

    • 30 were aged between 6.5 and 8 years old

    • 33 were aged between 8 and 9.5 years old

    • 16 were aged between 9.5 - 12 years old
       

  • Procedure: The study involved 100 participants aged between 4 and 12, which covers a crucial developmental period in children's cognitive growth.

    • Study uses a 1-meter square model of three mountains.

    • Four viewpoints: A, B, C, and D, with a doll moved between them.

    • Child given 10 pictures of mountains taken from different positions.

    • Three shaped boards to represent the mountains in the model.

    • Child arranges boards to match what they see from different positions (A, B, C, D).

    • The child recreates board arrangements from previous viewpoints.

    • Second trial involves the child selecting the doll's viewpoint from 10 photographs.

    • Third trial: Child selects a picture and places the doll on the model to match the view.

    • Overall, the study assesses a child's ability to understand and represent different viewpoints.
       

  • Materials: The materials used in the study, such as the model of three mountains, pictures, and a wooden doll, are designed to assess children's ability to understand and represent different viewpoints. This type of task is commonly used to examine the development of theory of mind, which is a fundamental concept in cognitive psychology and child development studies.

  • Ways of Questioning: The various questioning methods employed in the study, including asking participants to place shapes or select pictures from different viewpoints, are techniques often used in research related to theory of mind and cognitive development.
     

  • Findings: The study's findings provide valuable insights into the development of children's egocentrism and their ability to take another person's perspective. The progression from egocentrism in younger children to a more nuanced understanding of differing viewpoints in older children is consistent with Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Children up to 7 years (in the preoperational stage) exhibited egocentric tendencies and struggled to consider others' viewpoints effectively.
     

  • Conclusions: The conclusions drawn from this study support Piaget's stages of development, specifically the transition from the pre-operational stage, characterized by egocentrism, to the concrete operational stage, where children begin to grasp that others may see things differently.

Strengths

  • Qualitative, detailed data

  • Standardized procedures

Weaknesses

  • Task difficulty

  • Lack of mundane realism

Dweck's

Mindset's theory 

  • Mindset: Refers to a set of beliefs that individuals hold about their intelligence, abilities, and potential for growth.

  • Fixed mindset: Children with a fixed mindset believe that their abilities are fixed and limited, which can lead to self-imposed limitations, giving up easily, and even depression.

  • Growth mindset: Children with a growth mindset believe that their abilities can be developed through effort and perseverance, leading to greater success and personal growth.

  • Teachers' role: Teachers play a crucial role in shaping students' mindsets. A teacher with a fixed mindset may believe that a child lacks a particular ability, while a teacher with a growth mindset believes that a child can improve through dedication and effort.

Strengths

  • Applicability to teachers: The theory provides practical implications for teachers to understand the impact of mindset on students' motivation, resilience, and achievement.

  • Strong evidence: The theory is supported by robust evidence, including research conducted by Yeager and Dweck, which strengthens its credibility and validity.

Weakness

  • Artificial setting: Some critics argue that the studies conducted to test Dweck's theory may suffer from low external validity as they often take place in controlled environments, which may not fully reflect real-life situations and contexts.

Willingham's

Theory of Development

  • Factual knowledge and problem-solving: Having factual knowledge about an event can aid in problem-solving related to that event. Practice and effort are essential for mastering knowledge and skills.

  • Short-term memory and practice: Short-term memory plays a role in practice and repetition, which helps in retaining and reinforcing information.

  • Problem-solving and creativity: Problem-solving skills and creativity are crucial for achieving success in cognitive development.

  • Developmental considerations: Cognitive development can be improved by presenting new problems that are appropriate for the child's stage of development. Physical development involves practicing movements that are suitable for the child's abilities. Social development involves fostering decentration abilities, reducing impulsive behavior, and promoting the development of appropriate responses and friendships. Delaying rewards can enhance self-control.

  • Applicability to education: The theory has practical applications in educational settings, providing insights into how knowledge acquisition, problem-solving, and creativity can be fostered in students.

  • Support from Gopnik: Willingham's theory is supported by research by Gopnik, which challenges Piaget's notion of children's egocentrism.

Strengths

Weakness

  • Universal strategies: The theory may not adequately emphasize the importance of individual differences and the need for tailored approaches to suit each learner's specific needs.

Core Case Study

Gunderson (2012): Parent Praise to 1- to 3-Year-Olds Predicts Children’s Motivational Frameworks 5 Years Later. 

  • Background: Parental praise impacts a child's later beliefs and reasons for behavior.

    • Praising effort over abilities encourages the belief that hard work can improve achievement.

    • Elizabeth Gunderson's study examines how parental praise in a natural setting aligns with experimental findings.

    • "Person praise" focuses on praising the individual rather than the task.

  • Person praise may lead children to believe in fixed traits, known as "Entity Theory" or "Entity Motivational Framework," where behavior and ability are seen as inherent, potentially reducing effort on tasks they believe they're not naturally good at.

    • "Process praise" praises what is being done rather than the individual.

  • Process praise encourages children to connect effort with success and view ability as changeable.

    • This perspective is called "Incremental Theory" or "Incremental Motivational Framework," where effort is believed to drive behavior and ability, which can be improved.
       

  • Aims:

    • Whether children are affected by different type of praise in a natural situation.

    • Gender differences in praise.

    • Parent praise to 1-3 year olds predicts children’s motivational frameworks 5 years later (ABILITY OR EFFORT)
       

  • Methods:

    • Longitudinal research design

    • Followed children over an extended period

    • Assessed parental praise when children were 14, 26, and 38 months old

    • Examined children's beliefs about behavior five years later

    • Investigated the impact of different types of praise on these beliefs

    • Considered gender differences in the relationship between praise and beliefs
       

  • Participants:

    • 29 boys, 24 girls with their caregivers.

    • 64% white, 17% african-american, 11% hispanic, 8% multiracial backgrounds.
       

  • Procedure:

    • Participants were unaware that the study focused on praise, believing it was about language development.

    • Caregiver and child were instructed to engage in their typical daily activities, which were recorded in 90-minute sessions.

    • Later assessments of children's beliefs were conducted through questionnaires.

    • The questionnaire consisted of 18 items related to children's ideas, their motivational framework, and the factors influencing intelligence.

    • Additionally, there were six items addressing children's beliefs about the factors underlying "good" and "bad" actions.

​

  • Results:

    • Parental praise pattern: Only 3% of all parental comments to children consisted of praise.

    • Types of praise:

      • Process praise accounted for 18% of all praise.

      • Person praise accounted for 16% of all praise.

      • Other forms of praise made up the remaining 66%.

    • Gender differences in process praise:

    • Boys received more process praise (24.4%) compared to girls (10.3%).

    • Relationship between parental praise and children's framework:

    • Process praise tended to lead to an incremental framework, where children believed that effort could lead to improvement.

    • There was no apparent connection between parents giving person praise and children developing an entity motivational framework.

    • Early person praise did not appear to result in fixed frameworks later in a child's life.

  • Conclusions:

    • Strong correlation observed between parents using process praise and children adopting an incremental motivational framework, indicating a belief in changeable abilities.

    • No evidence suggesting that parental use of person praise resulted in children developing an entity motivational framework, which implies fixed abilities.
       

  • Strengths of the study:

    • Natural environment: The study was conducted in a natural setting, allowing for observations of genuine behavior, enhancing ecological validity.

    • Double-blind trial: The study employed a double-blind methodology, reducing bias in the observations and analysis.
       

  • Weaknesses of the study:

    • Ethical concerns: The use of deception in the study might be considered unethical.

    • Potential parental response bias: The observation of parents' praise style might have influenced their behavior, potentially compromising the validity of the results.

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